What can we learn from reflecting on the surviving fragments of Heraclitus, the Pre-Socratic Philosopher?
Many of his pithy sayings inspired the later Cynic and Stoic Philosophers, and the Church Fathers, including Clement of Alexandria and Hippolytus of Rome. These sayings by Heraclitus include:
“God is day and night, winter and summer, war and peace, plenty and hunger.
Life and death are the same; so are waking and sleeping, youth and age.”[1]
“Man is called a baby by God, even as a child by man.
Asses prefer straw to gold.
All things are in a state of flux.
Man’s character is his fate.”[2]
Powerpoint Script with Book Links:
https://www.slideshare.net/BruceStrom1/heraclitus-presocratic-philosopher-inspiration-for-stoics-and-church-fathers
YouTube video for this blog: https://youtu.be/7Kpfm0O8XBA
BACKGROUND OF HERACLITUS
Philosophy was not invented by Socrates and Plato; they were influenced by the pre-Socratic philosophers. The first philosophers hail from the Greek colonies on the Ionian coast, which is Turkey today. Heraclitus was an aristocrat born in Ephesus a few hundred years before Socrates.
Ephesus was part of the kingdom of Lydia, which fell to the Medes and Persians in 547 BC,[3] we read about this struggle in Herodotus, so Ephesus was part of a satrapy of the Persian Empire when Heraclitus was alive. Though the cultural impact was minimal, as the satrapies were self-governing, there were Persian influences. How extensive these were we can only guess.
Herodotus, Histories of Persia, Egypt and Scythia Before the Greco-Persian Wars
http://www.seekingvirtueandwisdom.com/herodotus-histories-of-persia-egypt-and-scythia-before-the-greco-persian-wars/
https://youtu.be/YwUojwMIQEw
As Copleston puts it, “Heraclitus was a melancholy man, of aloof and solitary temperament, who expressed his contempt for the common herd of citizens, as also for the eminent men of the past.” He relinquished his hereditary office of Basileus, or leading local official, to his brother.
Heraclitus’ main work, On Nature, is lost to history, only fragments and quotations from other authors survive.[4] These fragments are quoted more than the other pre-Socratic philosophers, by ancient, medieval, and modern philosophers. In particular, he was quoted by Marcus Aurelius, Aristotle, St Hippolytus of Rome, and St Clement of Alexandria. We have no shortage of paintings of Heraclitus, in Raphael’s School of Athens two philosophers are seated in front of Plato and Socrates, to the left is Heraclitus, to the right is the Cynic philosopher Diogenes of Sinope.
Marcus Aurelius Blog 2, Others will be irritating, but not I!
http://www.seekingvirtueandwisdom.com/marcus-aurelius-blog-2-others-will-be-irritating-but-not-i/
Marcus Aurelius Blog 3 Genuine Friends Don’t Keep Scorecards
http://www.seekingvirtueandwisdom.com/marcus-aurelius-blog-3-genuine-friendships-have-no-scorecards/
Marcus Aurelius Blog 4 Be critical of yourself, be gracious towards your neighbor
http://www.seekingvirtueandwisdom.com/marcus-aurelius-blog-4-be-critical-of-yourself-be-gracious-towards-your-neighbor/
Marcus Aurelius Blog 5 Seeing life’s misfortunes through the eyes of our neighbor
http://www.seekingvirtueandwisdom.com/marcus-aurelius-blog-5-seeing-lifes-misfortunes-through-the-eyes-of-our-neighbor/
Marcus Aurelius: Meditations: Stoic View of Life
https://youtu.be/0qHpReZYhv4
In medieval paintings, Heraclitus is often depicted seated next to another pre-Socratic philosopher, Democritus, who was the teacher of Protagoras, the Sophist in Plato’s dialogue. This is an artistic convention, it was highly unlikely that they met, Democritus lived in Abdera in Thrace, far from Ephesus, in the generation after Heraclitus. Democritus is best known for his belief that atoms were the building blocks of all matter.[5]
Aristotle calls him Heraclitus the Obscure, many of his surviving fragments are puzzling, if his main lost work is ever found we will then guess less about his meaning. We know that many ancient authors quoted him from his original work. Perhaps one day some future magical CAT-scan type device can read the volumes in the volcano-baked library of Herculaneum that locks many ancient works in charred papyrus.[6] Since we are more interested in reflecting on how Christians and philosophers interpreted Heraclitus’ sayings than his writings themselves, and since only fragments survive, we will reflect on them author by author.
DIOGENES OF LAERTIUS: BIOGRAPHY OF HERACLITUS
Diogenes of Laertius, in Book 9 of Lives of Eminent Philosophers, included short biographies of the latter pre-Socratic philosophers, starting with Heraclitus, and including two Sophists known from their Platonic dialogues, Protagoras and Parmenides. Diogenes is both a valuable and a problematic source, at times he seems more gullible than was Herodotus, and scholars are skeptical of his more outlandish statements.
Diogenes says that “Heraclitus was exceptionally haughty and disdainful, as is clear from his book, in which he says, ‘Much learning does not teach understanding; otherwise, it would have taught Hesiod and Pythagoras.’” Also, “he used to say that Homer should be thrown out of the public contests and beaten with a stick.” Plato’s Socrates also condemned Homer, banning poets from his Republic.
Some quick sayings by Heraclitus: “You should extinguish pride more quickly than a fire,” which some translators render as: “You should extinguish violence more quickly than arson,” and: “The people should defend the law as they would their city wall.”
Diogenes of Laertius has a curious account of how Heraclitus died. “Having become a misanthrope, he departed for the mountains where he lived on grass and herbs.” Perhaps this inspired the later Cynic philosophers, in particular Diogenes of Sinope, who spurned property and lived in a barrel in the market.
Diogenes of Laertius continues, “But when this diet gave Heraclitus dropsy,” where fluid is retained in the legs, “he returned to town and asked the doctors, enigmatically, if they could produce a drought after heavy rain. When they failed to understand him, he buried himself in a cowshed, hoping that the heat of the cow dung would draw the fluid out of him. But as even this had no effect, he died at the age of sixty.”
In the ancient world, noblemen and warriors died the noble death. This ignoble death of Heraclitus suggests that the locals in Ephesus did not think highly of him. Otherwise, they would have remembered that Heraclitus had died a much more noble death.
Diogenes of Laertius says that “Heraclitus’ doctrines are as follows. All things are made of fire, and into fire they are dissolved; all things come about by fate, and it is by the convergence of opposites that beings are brought into harmony.”[7] Perhaps he was influenced by the fact that his Persian overlords worshiped fire.[8]
The ancients speculated that everything was made from four basic elements: Wind or Air, Water, Earth, and Fire. Which was the primary element was disputed among the pre-Socratic philosophers, Heraclitus thought it was fire, Thales thought it was water, Anaximander thought it was air, other philosophers said the elemental substance could be transformed into these four elements.[9]
Was the end of the world as depicted by the Book of Revelation influenced by speculations that fire was the predominant element? Were the stories of the primordial flood that engulfed the world influenced by speculations that water was the predominant element? We do know that these four basic elements were core to the ancient Greeks’ view of the world.
ST CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA, ON HERACLITUS
Many of the Heraclitus fragments are quotes from the Church Father Clement of Alexandria and Hippolytus in the second and third centuries. St Clement was deeply influenced by Plato and the Stoic philosophers, and many of his quotes seek to show how the Greek moral philosophers echoed truths found in Scripture. Clement claimed that the Greeks plagiarized the Hebrews: few scholars, if any, agree with his argument.
St Clement was a catechetical teacher in Alexandria, Origen was among his students. Although he is considered a saint, he is not widely venerated in the Orthodox and Catholic churches as some of his teachings were later determined to be suspect and possibly heretical.[10]
In this section, we will be quoting Clement, his quotes of Heraclitus will be in italics.
Proverbs 5:16 exhorts us, “Let thy fountains be dispersed abroad, and rivers of waters in the street.
For most people do not understand the things they experience, nor do they know when they have learned; but they seem to themselves to do so,
according to the good Heraclitus. So, you see that he too finds fault with unbelievers.”
Heraclitus here is predicting the Dunning-Kruger effect!
Heraclitus and the other “Ionian Muses say explicitly that most men who think themselves wise follow the popular singers and obey the laws, not knowing that most men are bad, and few are good, but that the best pursue reputation. For:
The best, he says, choose one thing in return for all: ever flowing fame from mortals; but most men satisfy themselves like beasts,
measuring happiness by the belly and the genitals and the most shameful parts in us.”
“Heraclitus caustically remarks that some people are without faith,
not knowing how to hear or even to speak,
he was aided here by Solomon in Ecclesiasticus 6:33: ‘If thou desire to hear, thou shalt receive; and if thou incline thine ear, thou shalt be wise.’”
“Knowledge and ignorance are the boundaries of happiness and unhappiness. For:
philosophical men must be versed in very many things,
according to Heraclitus, and it is indeed necessary to make many journeys in the search to be good.”
“Hence the apostle exhorts us in 1 Corinthians 2:5 that ‘your faith should not stand in the wisdom of men’ who promise to persuade you, ‘but in the power of God,’ which in itself and without proofs has the power to save by faith alone.
As the Ephesian Heraclitus says:
For the most esteemed of men knows and guards what he believes, and moreover,
justice will convict the fashioners and witnesses of falsehoods.
For he leaned from foreign philosophy about the purification through fire of those who have lived evil lives.”
Clement says, “I know that Plato, too, supports Heraclitus when the writes:
The One alone is the wise, unwilling and willing to be called by the name of Zeus, and again:
It is law also to follow the counsel of the One.
As Luke 14:35 states, ‘He who has ears to hear, let him hear,’ you will find it expressed as follows by the Ephesian Heraclitus:
The uncomprehending, when they hear, are like the deaf: the saying applies to them, though present they are absent.”
“The Scriptures in 1 Timothy 1:9 exhort, ‘The law is not made for a righteous man.’ Thus, Heraclitus rightly says,
They would not know the name of justice if these things did not exist,
and Socrates says that the law would not have come into being for the sake of the good.”
“Heraclitus states, Gods and men honor those slain in battle.”[11]
ST HIPPOLYTUS OF ROME, REFUTATION OF ALL HERESIES, ON HERACLITUS
Although Hippolytus of Rome was an influential second century theologian, little is known about him, scholars are not sure of either his identity or his community. St Photios I of Constantinople claims he was an apostle of St Irenaeus, but scholars doubt this. St Hippolytus includes quotes from the Greek philosophers in his Refutation of All Heresies.[12]
In his summary of philosophy of Heraclitus, he comments on his intellectual arrogance: “Heraclitus, a natural philosopher of Ephesus, surrendered himself to universal grief, condemning the ignorance of the entirety of life, and of all mortal men and their existence, for he asserted that he himself knew everything, whereas the rest of mankind know nothing.”
Nevertheless, his philosophy includes much wisdom. Both he and Empedocles said “that the originating principle of all things is discord and friendship, and that the Deity is a fire blazing with intelligence, and that all things are unified, and never stand still.” However, the world around us “is full of evil things, that these evil things reach as far as the moon.”[13]
In this section, we will be quoting Hippolytus, his quotes of Heraclitus will be in italics.
“Heraclitus says that the universe is divisible and indivisible, generated and ungenerated, mortal and immortal, Word and eternity, Father and Son, God and Justice.
Listening not to me but to the universal, it is wise to agree that all things are one.”
“Heraclitus states that the universe is a child and an eternal king of all things for eternity:
Eternity is a child at play, playing draughts: the kingdom is a child’s.”
Heraclitus states “that the father of everything that has come about is generated and ungenerated, creature and creator,
War is father of all, king of all: some it shows as gods, some as men; some it makes slaves, some free.”
We are always reminded that the ancient Greek world is a warrior society, with roots in the warrior ethos of the Iliad and the Odyssey, where if your city-state is defeated, it is pillaged and plundered, and your military age men are slaughtered, and your women and children are sold into slavery. You can also be enslaved when you are captured by pirates.
The Iliad, the Basis of Greek Culture and the Western Philosophical Tradition
http://www.seekingvirtueandwisdom.com/iliad_blog01/
https://youtu.be/DpmuhZJUJn0
The Warrior Cultures of the Iliad and the American Indian, Bravely Visiting the Enemy Camp
http://www.seekingvirtueandwisdom.com/iliad-blog-3-visiting-the-enemy-camp-greeks-vs-indians/
https://youtu.be/ynIx-AVI2f8
Concubines in the Iliad, Old Testament and Christian Tradition
http://www.seekingvirtueandwisdom.com/iliad_blog02/
http://www.seekingvirtueandwisdom.com/the-iliad-blog-4-briseis-chryseis-arent-all-concubines-the-same/
https://youtu.be/bGHHD7XTvr0
The Iliad of Homer: Glory, Honor, Madness and Futility of War
http://www.seekingvirtueandwisdom.com/the-iliad-blog-5-the-tide-of-battle-turns-against-the-greeks/
http://www.seekingvirtueandwisdom.com/the-iliad-blog-6-embassy-to-achilles-oration-failed-meeting/
http://www.seekingvirtueandwisdom.com/the-iliad-blog-7-the-deaths-of-patroclus-and-hector/
https://youtu.be/7lI2ZQ50wRc
Odyssey of Homer: Xenia, the Need for Hospitality
http://www.seekingvirtueandwisdom.com/odyssey-blog-1-waiting-those-very-long-years-for-odysseus/
http://www.seekingvirtueandwisdom.com/odyssey-blog-2-odysseus-sings-his-adventures/
http://www.seekingvirtueandwisdom.com/odyssey-blog-3-odysseus-returns-home-to-ithica/
http://www.seekingvirtueandwisdom.com/odyssey-blog-4-the-slaughter-of-the-suitors/
https://youtu.be/bUW4ZT9zpt8
“Heraclitus praises and admires the unknown and unseen part of God’s power above the known part. That he is visible to men and not undiscoverable he says in the following words:
I honor more those things which are learned by sight and hearing,”
he says, the visible more than the invisible.”
“God is unapparent, unseen, unknown to men, as Heraclitus says:
Unapparent connection is better than apparent.”
And Aristotle was right when he calls him Heraclitus the Obscure.
“Heraclitus explicitly says: Immortals are mortal, mortals immortal: living their death, dying their life.”
“Heraclitus speaks of a resurrection of this visible flesh in which we are born, and he is aware that God is the cause of this resurrection, saying:
They are said to rise up and to become wakeful guardians of the living and the dead.”[14]
OTHER FRAGMENTS AND QUOTES OF HERACLITUS
“Men fail to notice what they do when they are awake, just as they forget what they do when asleep.”[15]
“It is better to hide folly than to make it public.”
“It is not good for men to get all they want.”
“To be temperate is the greatest excellence. And wisdom is speaking the truth and acting with knowledge in accordance with nature.”
“All men can know themselves and be temperate.”
Here Heraclitus adds good advice to this famous inscription at the Temple of the Delphic Oracle.
Sextus Empiricus says, “Heraclitus rejects perception when he says,
Bad witnesses for men are the eyes and ears of those who have foreign souls:
as foreign souls trust in non-rational perceptions.”
The Neo-Platonist philosopher Porphyry in his notes on Homer’s Iliad comments, “They say it is indecent if the sight of warfare pleases the gods. But it is not indecent, for the noble deeds please the gods. Again, wars and battles seem terrible to us, but to God not even they are terrible. For God makes all things contribute to the harmony of the universe, so Heraclitus says that to God all things are fair and just, but men have supposed some things unjust, and others just.”
We are not suggesting that this observation is moral and just, we do suggest that this illustrates the stoic forbearance with which many ancients faced the inequities and violence they often faced in a warrior society.
Plato in his Hippias Major dialogue, asks: “Don’t you realize the truth of Heraclitus’ remark that the most beautiful ape is ugly when compared with another species?” “Doesn’t Heraclitus also say that the wisest of men, when compared to a god, will seem an ape in wisdom and beauty and everything else?”
Aristotle says that “surely nature longs for opposites and effects her harmony from them.” “That was also said by Heraclitus the Obscure:
Combinations: wholes and not wholes, concurring differing, concordant disconcordance, from all things one and from one all things.
In this way the structure of the universe, of the heavens and the earth and the whole world, was arranged by one harmony through the blending of the most opposite principles.”
Aristotle in his Nicomachean Ethics says: “It seems that each animal has its own pleasure.” “The pleasures of horses, dogs, and men differ, so Heraclitus says that donkeys would prefer rubbish to gold,” since it is tastier.[16]
FREDERICK COPLESTON: THE WORD OF DEMOCRITUS
Frederick Copleston was an English Jesuit priest and professor whose multi-volume history of philosophy was included in the curriculum of Catholic colleges worldwide. He was best known for his public debate on the existence of God with Bertrand Russell, and also for his debate with AJ Ayer.[17]
Although Heraclitus is best known for his saying that, “You cannot step twice in the same river, for fresh waters are ever flowing in upon you,” he may not have been the first to proclaim that “all things are in a state of flux.” Although this is an important assertion he makes, Copleston argues that what is key is Heraclitus’ emphasis on the Logos, or Word, on his special message to mankind, which “consists in the conception of unity in diversity, and difference in unity.”
Why was the philosophy of Heraclitus attractive both to the Stoic philosophers and to many early Christian theologians? Copleston states, “For Heraclitus the conflict of opposites, so far from being a blot on the unity of the One, is essential to the being of the One. In fact, the One only exists in the tension of opposites: this tension is essential to the unity of the One.”
Copleston continues: “For Heraclitus, Reality is One; but it is many at the same time, not merely accidentally, but essentially. It is essential to the being and existence of the One that it should be one and many at the same time; that it should be Identity in Difference.”
Heraclitus argued that the essence of all things is fire. Although he did base this on practical observations, this took on the firmness of religious belief and was a founding principle of his philosophy. As Copleston paraphrases Heraclitus: “Sense-experience tells us that fire lives by feeding, by consuming and transforming into itself heterogeneous matter. Springing up, as it were, from a multitude of objects, it changes them into itself, and without this supply of material it would die down and cease to exist. The very existence of fire depends on this strife and tension.”
Heraclitus speaks of the One as God, as wise: “The wise is the One only. He is unwilling and willing to be called by the name of Zeus.” The Stoic philosophers whom he inspires interchangeably refer to the One as God and as Zeus, he is the unitary expression of truth of all the other gods. Although this feels like monotheism, scholars refer to this as henotheism.
As Copleston explains, “God is the universal Reason, the universal law immanent in all things, binding all things into a unity and determining the constant change in the universe according to universal law. Man’s reason is a moment in this universal Reason,” “and man should strive to live by this reason, realizing the unity of all things and the reign of unalterable law,” and here he refers to this law as the Word, or Logos. “By stressing universal law and man’s participation in Reason, Heraclitus helped to pave the way for the universalist ideals of Stoicism.”
Copleston explains that this unity in many is appealing to Christian theologians, as God is One in Three Persons, Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. “God Himself, as we know by Revelation, is Unity in Distinction of Persons. In Christ there is unity in diversity, unity of Person in diversity of Natures,” divine and human natures of Christ.[18]
However, though there is much in the philosophy of Heraclitus that is reflected in Stoic philosophy, and also in the Christian reflections on the nature of God, Copleston does not reflect on whether Heraclitus’ philosophy of unity in opposites might have been influenced by the Persian Zoroastrian dualism of his overlords, with its everlasting contest between the cosmic forces of good and evil.[19] This dualism is suggested particularly by the saying by Heraclitus, “Good and bad are the same, goodness and badness are one.”[20]
We discussed this Persian dualism in our review of St Augustine’s Confessions. St Augustine was a member of the Manichean heresy, which was a syncretistic faith that blended Zoroastrian with Christianity to form a competing Gnostic religious system.
St Augustine’s Confessions: Manichaeism, NeoPlatonic Philosophy, and Monica’s Prayers, Books 3, 4, and 5
https://seekingvirtueandwisdom.com/st-augustines-confessions-manichaeism-neoplatonic-philosophy-and-monicas-prayers/
https://youtu.be/ydskqlgZSrE
There is so much we do not know for certain about the philosophy of Heraclitus, maybe one day his original work, On Nature, will be resurrected from the ashes of history.
DISCUSSING THE SOURCES
Our main source is this compilation of fragments and quotations of Early Greek Philosophy by Penguin Classics. The editor sorted these sayings by topics, we rearranged them by author. We like this translation by Jonathon Barnes, as well as his useful commentary. The bracketed [B] references are for the Diels-Kranz B Texts, see the appendices.
As Barnes explains, the problems inherent in translating ancient works are magnified for the surviving fragments of the pre-Socratic philosophers. Apart from being ripped out of their original context, these fragments themselves were extracted from works that often had been copied and recopied for hundreds of years. Modern scholars just have to do the best that they can.[21]
These quotations include the biography of Heraclitus in the ancient Lives of Eminent Philosophers by Diogenes of Laertius, who likely lived in the third century.[22] This volume also includes many interesting scholarly essays on Diogenes and Greek philosophy in the Appendix. We liked the footnote in the Early Greek Philosophy that Diogenes’ Lives “is derivative: it contains simplifications, confusions and some nonsense. But it remains a valuable source for the pre-Socratics and for later Greek philosophy.”[23] It is valuable because it is the most extensive source for many of these philosophers, many who would be unknown if not for the brief mention by Diogenes.
We found the chapter on Heraclitus in Frederick Copleston’s volume on Greek and Roman Philosophy to be essential in understanding how his philosophy fits into early Christian theology. As always, Will Durant in his Life of Greece in the Story of Civilization series offers many additional insights and is as quotable as always.
In our blog we also include the footnote references for St Hippolytus of Rome and Clement of Alexander in the Ante-Nicene Fathers. We want to warn you that the works of Clement of Alexandria sprawl over hundreds of pages and are disorganized even by Stoic standards.
[1] Will Durant, The Story of Civilization, Volume 2, Life of Greece (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1966, 1939), Chapter 4, p. 145.
[2] Frederick Copleston, A History of Philosophy, Volume 1, Greece and Rome (New York: Image Books Doubleday, 1946, 1993), The Word of Heraclitus, pp. 38-39.
[3] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lydia
[4] Frederick Copleston, A History of Philosophy, Greece and Rome, The Word of Heraclitus, p. 38 and https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heraclitus
[5] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democritus
[6] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herculaneum_papyri
[7] Diogenes of Laertius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers, translated by Pamela Mensch (New York: Oxford University Press, 2018), Heraclitus, Book 9, Chapters 1-7, pp. 436-438. This is also repeated in Early Greek Philosophy, translated and edited by Jonathon Barnes (New York: Penguin Classics, 1987), Heraclitus, pp. 105-108.
[8] Will Durant, The Story of Civilization, Life of Greece, Chapter 4, p. 144.
[9] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_element
[10] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria
[11] Early Greek Philosophy, Heraclitus, pp. 109-110,113-114,119,124-125. These are drawn from St Clement of Alexandria, The Stromata or Miscellanies, in the Ante-Nicene Fathers, Volume 2, translated by Rev WL Alexander (Boston: Hendrickson Publishers, 1994, first published 1885), it is sprawling, over several hundred pages, starting at page 299, with twenty pages still in the original Latin. Many quotes are from Book 5, Chapter 14, Greek Plagiarism from the Hebrews, beginning on page 465. This chapter is an historically interesting summary of his views on Stoicism and other Greek philosophers.
[12] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippolytus_of_Rome
[13] St Hippolytus, The Refutation of All Heresies, In the Ante-Nicene Fathers, Volume 5, translated by Rev JH MacMahon (Boston: Hendrickson Publishers, 1994, first published 1886), Book 1, Chapter 4, p. 13.
[14] Early Greek Philosophy, Heraclitus, pp. 101-104. An earlier 1886 translation is in St Hippolytus, The Refutation of All Heresies, Book 9, Chapters 4-5, pp. 126-127.
[15] Early Greek Philosophy, Heraclitus, p. 101.
[16] Early Greek Philosophy, Heraclitus, pp. 109,113-116 and Will Durant, The Story of Civilization, Life of Greece, Chapter 4, p. 147.
[17] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Copleston
[18] Frederick Copleston, A History of Philosophy, Greece and Rome, The Word of Heraclitus, pp. 39-45.
[19] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoroastrianism
[20] Will Durant, The Story of Civilization, Life of Greece, Chapter 4, p. 145.
[21] Early Greek Philosophy, Introduction, pp. 32-34.
[22] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diogenes_Laertius
[23] Early Greek Philosophy, Heraclitus, p. 297.
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