Greek and Roman History

Horses and Cavalry from Xenophon in Ancient Greece to the American Civil War, and in New York City
Greek and Roman History

Horses and Cavalry from Xenophon in Ancient Greece to the American Civil War, and in New York City

05/01/2024 Bruce Strom 0

From antiquity, in combat, horses had three roles: hauling supplies, fighting in highly mobile cavalry regiments, sometimes pulling chariots in ancient times, and enabling generals to quickly survey the battlefield. From ancient times, in both war and peace time, technological improvements meant horses could be used more effectively. Improved harnesses made chariot warfare common throughout the Ancient Near East, quite often several archers would ride in the chariot. In the Old Testament, we read that King Ahab died when an arrow struck him in his chariot, likely he was standing next to an archer. […]

The Cruel Roman Emperor Commodus, Son of the Good Stoic Emperor Marcus Aurelius
Greek and Roman History

The Cruel Roman Emperor Commodus, Son of the Good Stoic Emperor Marcus Aurelius

11/17/2023 Bruce Strom 0

The wise stoic reign of Marcus Aurelius, beloved by all, was followed by the murderous reign of Commodus, hated and feared by all, who would be assassinated by his closest companions. The disastrously reckless cruelty of Commodus, and his neglectful reign, which nearly caused the disintegration of the Roman Empire, colors the opinion of both ancient and modern historians. What historians mention, but do not emphasize, are the similarities between the soldier Hadrian and Commodus. Both liked to fight in the ring as gladiators. Both decided to halt the Roman policy of expansion, seeking strategic withdrawal. And Marcus Aurelius was as wary of his adoptive grandfather Hadrian as he was of his wayward son Commodus. […]

Were the Christians Actively Persecuted by Marcus Aurelius, Stoic Philosopher and Good Roman Emperor?
Greek and Roman History

Were the Christians Actively Persecuted by Marcus Aurelius, Stoic Philosopher and Good Roman Emperor?

10/13/2023 Bruce Strom 0

Today we will reflect on this question: Did the good Roman Emperor and Stoic Philosopher Marcus Aurelius actively persecute Christians? Why wasn’t Marcus Aurelius and other stoics impressed by the martyrdom of Christians in the arena? How could Marcus Aurelius espouse Christian values in his Stoic Meditations, while also including […]

Robin Waterfield Reflects on Xenophon’s Anabasis in Persia, and Other Greco-Persian Conflicts
Greek and Roman History

The Historian Robin Waterfield Reflects on Xenophon’s Anabasis in Persia, and Other Greco-Persian Conflicts

10/05/2023 Bruce Strom 1

The Greek hoplite infantry forces were the best warriors of their time, they were eagerly employed as mercenaries in the ancient world. The Greeks won the Battle of Cunaxa, and although Artaxerxes was wounded in the battle, his younger brother Cyrus died fighting. The Greek forces were stuck thousands of miles from home, but the Persian forces of Artaxerxes were fearful of directly attacking them. At first, the Persians guided them north towards the Greek colonies of the Black Sea, but then they double-crossed them, killing many of their generals. The Greeks simply elected new generals, with Xenophon now leading their forces, as they first fought the Persians, then mountain tribesmen, fighting for provisions, as they retreated to the Greek colonies on the shores of the Black Sea. […]

History of Christian Persecutions, New Testament Through Marcus Aurelius
Greek and Roman History

History of Christian Persecutions, New Testament Through Marcus Aurelius

09/22/2023 Bruce Strom 2

How widespread was the Christian persecution under the Roman Empire? Usually, it was a local affair, not until the reign of Diocletian was an empire-wide systematic persecution of Christians undertaken. The persecution under Nero was limited to Rome itself. The extent of the local persecution depended on the enthusiasm or cruelty of the local officials, many local officials had no enthusiasm for persecuting the local Christians, turning a blind eye. Overall, the number of persecutions was not huge, rarely were the Christian persecutions systematic, targeting all Christians. Indeed, the Christian martyrs in the twentieth century alone, mostly in Russia, dwarfed the number of Christian martyrs from the preceding nineteen centuries combined. […]

Marcus Aurelius Biography
Greek and Roman History

Biography of Marcus Aurelius, Stoic Philosopher and Roman Emperor

09/20/2023 Bruce Strom 3

Summarizing his life, Cassius Dio tells us that Marcus Aurelius “did not display many feats of physical prowess; yet he had developed his body from a very weak one to one capable of the greatest endurance. Most of his life he devoted to beneficence, and that was the reason, perhaps, for his erecting a temple to Beneficence on the Capitol.” […]

Roman Emperors before Marcus Aurelius
Greek and Roman History

Roman Emperors Before Marcus Aurelius

09/15/2023 Bruce Strom 5

Hadrian’s peace policy was controversial, he abandoned Trajan’s conquests in Dacian Romania and Parthian Persia to concentrate on consolidating the Roman Empire. The problem was that the Roman Empire needed continual expansion, including war booty and slaves, to fund the empire and feed the growing populace of Rome. This policy certainly did not prevent future conflict with Parthian Persia.
Historians debate whether Hadrian’s defensive posture was wise. Were there prosperous provinces left to conquer on the frontiers? On the other hand, the successful expansion of the empire by the Byzantine Emperor Justinian several centuries later nearly bankrupted his Empire. […]

The Life, Adventures, and Philosophy of Xenophon, General and Student of Socrates
Greek and Roman History

The Life, Adventures, and Philosophy of Xenophon, General and Student of Socrates

08/03/2023 Bruce Strom 0

Was Xenophon a warrior, a historian, or a philosopher? Xenophon is one of the rare ancient authors whose entire corpus of major works have survived, putting him in the company of Plato and St Augustine, he was highly regarded among ancient and medieval scholars, though hyper-critical modern scholars tend to deprecate him. He was a student of Socrates and wrote several works featuring Socrates, including a fascinating collections of his Stoic-like sayings in the Memorabilia. […]

Xenophon’s Anabasis: The Persian Expedition, an Ancient Adventure Story
Greek and Roman History

Xenophon’s Anabasis: The Persian Expedition, an Ancient Adventure Story

07/07/2023 Bruce Strom 3

The historian Will Durant summarizes this March of the Ten Thousand, led by Xenophon, “was one of the greatest adventures in human history. We are amazed at the inexhaustible courage of these Greeks, fighting their way on foot, day by day for five months, thorough two thousand miles of enemy country, across hot and foodless plains, and over perilous mountain passes covered with eight feet of snow, while armies and guerrilla bands attacked them in the rear and in front and on either flank, and hostile natives used every device to kill them, or mislead them, or bar their way.” […]

Summary of Greco-Persian Wars, Herodotus, Plutarch and Aeschylus Celebrate Greek Victory
Greek and Roman History

Summary of Greco-Persian Wars, Ancient Historians Herodotus, Plutarch and Aeschylus Celebrate Greek Victory

07/05/2023 Bruce Strom 2

The wars between Greek city-states, and Persian influence in these wars, continued after a short peace, and lasted another generation, exhausting the Greek city-states, leading to their subjection of Philip of Macedon and Alexander the Great. The lesson that Alexander learned from of all these wars, starting with the Greco-Persian Wars, and from Xenophon’s leading the Greek mercenary armies from the heart of the Persian Empire, Babylon, back to Greek territory, was that the Greek hoplite armies were vastly superior to the Persian fighting forces. This meant for Alexander the Great that the Persian Empire was ripe for the taking. […]